Bibliography
Source register
Every book, survey, museum record and official page behind the converters, temple studies and unit articles, with what each one is trusted to show.
- Library works
- 60
- Source pages audited
- 17,165
- Converter standards
- 189
- Linked web sources
- 66
Local research library
60 source volumes and papers are held in the project library. Their text is indexed by page; claims and quotations are checked against the original page before publication: 17,165 pages in all, with scans that lacked a text layer recovered by OCR. They are research evidence, not downloadable site assets. A figure reaches a published page only after it has been read on the rendered page it is cited from.
| John Henry Alexander | 1850 | Universal Dictionary of Weights and Measures, Ancient and Modern, Reduced to the Standards of the United States of AmericaBaltimore: W. Minifie and Co.General cross-reference dictionary of ancient and modern units. Not yet promoted to primary authority for any family. | General | Reference | Public domain | 177 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| John Arbuthnot | 1705 | Tables of the Grecian, Roman and Jewish Measures, Weights and Coins, Reduc'd to the English StandardLondonCompact historical table retained as comparative evidence, not as the sole authority for a modern magnitude. | Greece and Rome | Reference | Public domain | 14 |
| John Arbuthnot; appendix by Benjamin Langwith | 1754 | Tables of Antient Coins, Weights, and Measures, Explained and Exemplified in Several Dissertations, 2nd ednLondon: D. Browne, A. Millar, J. Whiston and B. WhiteEarly comparative coin tables, troy-grain measurements and gold-coin fineness conventions. Older conclusions require modern corroboration. | Greece and Rome | Reference | Public domain | 442 |
| Karl Baedeker (firm) | 1914 | Egypt and the Sûdân: Handbook for Travellers, 7th remodelled ednLeipzig: Karl BaedekerApproximate monument dimensions and plans as published for travellers in 1914. Not a survey, and never the sole source for a tolerance. | Egypt | Reference | Public domain | 754 |
| August Böckh | 1838 | Metrologische Untersuchungen über Gewichte, Münzfüsse und Masse des Alterthums in ihrem Zusammenhange [Metrological investigations into the weights, coin standards and measures of antiquity]Berlin: Veit und Comp.The foundational comparative study; primary authority for the Attic, Aeginetan, Philetaeric, Babylonian and Ptolemaic standards. Figures are in Paris lines and are read from the rendered page, then translated. | Greece and Rome | AnalysisGerman | Public domain | 522 |
| Jon Bosak | 2010 | The Old Measure: An Inquiry into the Origins of the U.S. Customary System of Weights and MeasuresIthaca, New York: Pinax PublishingOrigins of the US customary system and its descent from Roman and English standards. | Britain and modern | Analysis | In copyright | 197 |
| Arnold Buffum Chace, with Henry Parker Manning; bibliography by Raymond Clare Archibald | 1927 | The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, Volume I: Free Translation and CommentaryOberlin, Ohio: Mathematical Association of AmericaTranslation and commentary on Rhind problems 56-59B, printed pp. 96-98, for seked arithmetic and the seven-palm cubit. Problem 60 has textual and object-identity qualifications; do not treat it as an unambiguous pyramid problem. Not contemporary documentation of Khufu construction. | Egyptian mathematics | Primary text | Public domain | 232 |
| Henry James Chaney | 1897 | Our Weights and Measures: A Practical Treatise on the Standard Weights and Measures in Use in the British EmpireLondon: Eyre and SpottiswoodeBritish imperial standards with an account of the metric system; general cross-reference. | Britain and modern | Reference | Public domain | 210 |
| Charles-Louis Clérisseau | 1778 | Antiquités de la France, première partie: Monumens de NismesParis: Philippe-Denis PierresHistorical measured drawings of Nîmes. Separate surviving fabric from restoration; check plate scales and the original French units. | Greece and Rome | SurveyFrench | Public domain | 142 |
| Olivier Cunin | 2004 | De Ta Prohm au Bayon: Analyse comparative de l’histoire architecturale des principaux monuments du style du Bayon, tome IDoctoral thesis, Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine · Source recordArchitectural sequence and comparative study of Bayon-style monuments. Distinguish observations, reconstructed phases and design hypotheses. | Asia | AnalysisFrench | In copyright | 497 |
| Olivier Cunin | 2004 | De Ta Prohm au Bayon: Contribution à l’histoire architecturale du temple du Bayon, tome IIDoctoral thesis, Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine · Source recordArchitectural sequence and comparative study of Bayon-style monuments. Distinguish observations, reconstructed phases and design hypotheses. | Asia | AnalysisFrench | In copyright | 189 |
| Antoine Desgodetz | 1682 | Les édifices antiques de Rome dessinés et mesurés très exactementParis: Jean-Baptiste Coignard · Source recordHistorical measured fabric of Roman monuments. Retain the survey date and French measurement system; do not silently treat survey feet as Roman feet. | Greece and Rome | SurveyFrench | Public domain | 352 |
| Tessa Dickinson | 2014 | A Landscape and Materials-based Approach to Royal Mortuary Architecture in Early Third Millennium BC Egypt, vol. 1PhD thesis, Institute of Archaeology, University College London · UCL Discovery recordDjoser's construction sequence and final envelope, pp. 143–146, drawing on Lauer; Bent Pyramid landscape, architecture and ritual structures, pp. 176–178. The differing Bent Pyramid height and upper angle are not merged into Jones's reconstruction. No site-specific ancient cubit calibration is inferred. | Egypt | Analysis | In copyright | 308 |
| John and Morton Edgar | 1910 | Great Pyramid Passages and Chambers, vol. IGlasgow: Bone & HulleyA Bible-chronology reading of the Great Pyramid. Its own preface calls its measurements approximate; cited as evidence of the tradition, never as fabric. | Egypt | Interpretive | Public domain | 340 |
| Peter H. Felker | 1878 | The Grocers' ManualGrand Rapids, MichiganCommodity-specific commercial measures and nineteenth-century conversion tables; shows why trade units cannot be merged by name alone. | Britain and modern | Reference | Public domain | 324 |
| P. R. Freeman; reply by Alexander Thom | 1977 | Thom’s survey of the Avebury ringJournal for the History of Astronomy 8, pp. 134–136Statistical critique with the proponents’ reply. Attribute each argument to its author; examine sensitivity to fitting assumptions and stone-position uncertainty. | Britain and modern | Analysis | In copyright | 3 |
| Jacques Gaucher | 2004 | Angkor Thom, une utopie réalisée? Structuration de l’espace et modèle indien d’urbanisme dans le Cambodge ancienArts Asiatiques 59, pp. 58–86 · Source recordUrban survey and proposed planning model. Keep mapped spatial evidence separate from the Indian-model interpretation. | Asia | AnalysisFrench | In copyright | 30 |
| John Greaves; ed. Thomas Birch | 1737 | Miscellaneous Works of Mr. John Greaves, 2 vols; includes Pyramidographia and A Discourse of the Roman Foot and DenariusLondon: J. HughsThe 1638–9 measurement of the Great Pyramid and the Roman foot determined from monuments. Superseded on the pyramid by later survey and framed accordingly. | Egypt | Survey | Public domain | 464 |
| Michael Guggenberger and Stephen Leach | 2025 | The Gallo-Roman Dodecahedron and the Receptacle of All BecomingThe Antiquaries Journal 105, pp. 31-54Object catalogue description of Mainz 3 (no. 134), printed p. 36, fig. 4. Preserve face-to-face datum and paired-axis aperture notation. Platonic/divinatory reading is the authors interpretation, not established function. No global discovery count used. | Roman artefacts | Analysis | In copyright | 24 |
| Richard Jones | 2006 | The Use of Manpower in the Construction of Old and Middle Kingdom Pyramid ComplexesPhD thesis, University of Liverpool · Liverpool Repository recordBent Pyramid: reported dimensions, masonry and competing structural explanations, pp. 96–97; the selected reconstruction retains Jones's secondary attribution. Red Pyramid: approximate envelope, course count, exposed core and complex, pp. 109–112. Modelling synthesis, not a new field survey. | Egypt | Analysis | In copyright | 283 |
| Roy E. Jordaan, editor | 1996 | In Praise of Prambanan: Dutch Essays on the Loro Jonggrang Temple ComplexLeiden: KITLV Press, Translation Series 26Translated essays on Prambanan. Cite the individual essay author and translation as well as the edited collection; distinguish reconstruction from surviving fabric. | Asia | Analysis | In copyright | 273 |
| L. A. Kasprik and A. C. Barros | 2020 | Ancient Mesopotamian's System of MeasurementJournal of Physics: Conference Series 1512, 012039 · DOIMesopotamian length, area, capacity and mass units and their sexagesimal relationships. | Near East | Reference | CC BY 3.0 | 11 |
| Peter A. Knapton | 2019 | Aspects of the Administration of the Achaemenid Empire: Weights and Measures Used in Official Transactions, and Related MattersMPhil thesis, University of LiverpoolEvidence and terminology for official weight, capacity, length and area standards. Retain the author’s distinctions between attested values and proposed imperial reforms. | Near East | Analysis | In copyright | 148 |
| Samuel Noah Kramer | 1963 | The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and CharacterChicago: University of Chicago PressHistorical and cultural context for Sumerian and Mesopotamian measures. | Near East | Reference | In copyright | 385 |
| Anna Kubicka | 2017 | The Metrological Research of the Machu Picchu Site: Application of a Cosine Quantogram Method for 3D Laser DataActa IMEKO 6(3), pp. 52–56Laser-survey data analysed for a proposed module. Statistical fit is evidence for a hypothesis, not proof of a universal Inca standard. | Americas | Analysis | CC BY 3.0 | 5 |
| Mark Lehner | 1997 | The Complete Pyramids (opening excerpt), 2001 reprint; opening 58-page excerpt onlyLondon: Thames & HudsonMajor Pyramid Statistics table for selected original-envelope dimensions, especially Unas. Mounted excerpt only; not a complete copy of the book. Summary dimensions are not error bounds or ancient design counts. | Egyptian monuments | Analysis | In copyright | 58 |
| Geneviève Lucet and Claudia I. Alvarado-León | 2025 | A Dual Measurement System: Standardization and Architectural Planning in XochicalcoAncient Mesoamerica 36, pp. 123–139 · Source recordSite-specific proposed modules and planning patterns. Do not generalise the inferred modules to all Mesoamerican cultures. | Americas | Analysis | CC BY 4.0 | 17 |
| Sylvanus Griswold Morley | 1915 | An Introduction to the Study of the Maya HieroglyphsWashington: Government Printing Office (BAE Bulletin 57)The Maya Long Count and its period names. | Americas | Reference | Public domain | 382 |
| Edward Nicholson | 1912 | Men and Measures: A History of Weights and Measures, Ancient and ModernLondon: Smith, Elder & Co. · Internet ArchiveBroad general history across unit families; cross-reference, not yet primary for any family. | General | Reference | Public domain | 338 |
| Louis Finot, Henri Parmentier and Victor Goloubew | 1926 | Le Temple d’Içvarapura (Bantây Srêi, Cambodge)Paris: G. Vanoest, Mémoires archéologiques de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient I · Source recordArchitectural drawings, images, inscriptions and history. Attribute the relevant part to its author; retain original units and distinguish restored elements. | Asia | SurveyFrench | Short quotations only; reuse rights not established | 326 |
| John Pennethorne; assisted by John Robinson | 1878 | The Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture, Illustrated by Examples from Thebes, Athens, and RomeLondon and Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate · Heidelberg digitisationA named nineteenth-century reconstruction of design method and optical refinement. His recovered laws are not presented as settled ancient intention. | Greece and Rome | Analysis | Public domain | 327 |
| Francis Cranmer Penrose | 1888 | An Investigation of the Principles of Athenian Architecture, 2nd ednLondon: Macmillan for the Society of Dilettanti · Heidelberg digitisationInstrumented survey of Athenian buildings with stated residuals; the site's strongest measured-fabric source and the route to the Attic foot. | Greece and Rome | Survey | Public domain | 190 |
| W. M. Flinders Petrie | 1883 | The Pyramids and Temples of GizehLondon: Field & Tuer · Internet ArchiveInstrumented Giza survey: casing base, per-side lengths, angles, heights and probable errors, pp. 77–83. The 440 by 280 cubit proposal is recorded separately as design theory. | Egypt | Survey | Public domain | 315 |
| W. M. Flinders Petrie | 1926 | Ancient Weights and Measures, Illustrated by the Egyptian Collection in University College, LondonLondon: Department of Egyptology, University CollegeArtefact-led Egyptian and eastern Mediterranean weights and measures, with explicit cautions about corrosion, wear, cleaning and coinage-driven change. | Egypt | Survey | Public domain | 123 |
| Hugh L. Porteous | 1973 | Megalithic Yard or Megalithic Myth?Journal for the History of Astronomy 4, pp. 22–24Statistical critique of a common megalithic unit; use as a test of fit and sampling assumptions, not as a replacement measured standard. | Britain and modern | Analysis | In copyright | 3 |
| Henry Rutter | 1866 | The Metric System of Weights and Measures Compared with British Standard Weights and MeasuresLondon: Effingham WilsonMetric comparison tables, including Chinese and Indian trade weights set against metric values. | Britain and modern | Reference | Public domain | 152 |
| Erich F. Schmidt | 1953 | Persepolis I: Structures, Reliefs, InscriptionsChicago: University of Chicago Press, Oriental Institute Publications 68Excavation reports, measured plans and catalogued objects. Cite the particular structure or object and plate; distinguish measured remains from restorations. | Near East | Survey | In copyright | 610 |
| Erich F. Schmidt | 1957 | Persepolis II: Contents of the Treasury and Other DiscoveriesChicago: University of Chicago Press, Oriental Institute Publications 69Excavation reports, measured plans and catalogued objects. Cite the particular structure or object and plate; distinguish measured remains from restorations. | Near East | Survey | In copyright | 322 |
| Erich F. Schmidt | 1970 | Persepolis III: The Royal Tombs and Other MonumentsChicago: University of Chicago Press, Oriental Institute Publications 70Excavation reports, measured plans and catalogued objects. Cite the particular structure or object and plate; distinguish measured remains from restorations. | Near East | Survey | In copyright | 378 |
| Kautilya; trans. R. Shamasastry | 1915 | Kautilya's ArthashastraBangalore: Government PressMauryan weights, measures and time units, cited as a 1915 translation. | Asia | Primary text | Public domain | 614 |
| Hokky Situngkir | 2015 | Borobudur was Built AlgorithmicallyarXiv:1508.03649 · Source recordComputational/fractal hypothesis. Attribute the proposed model; it does not establish the builders’ algorithm or a fixed ancient length unit. | Asia | Interpretive | In copyright | 9 |
| William Smith, ed. | 1849 | A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 2nd ednBoston: Little and Brown; London: Taylor, Walton and Maberly; John MurrayPeriod terminology, literary references and the Mensura, Pondera, Pes and Hora entries. Dimensions are verified against a survey where one exists. | Greece and Rome | Reference | Public domain | 1,320 |
| William Smith, ed. | 1857 | Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, vol. II, Iabadius to ZymethusLondon: Walton and Maberly; John MurrayGazetteer and historical topography, including Olympia at pp. 491–495. Predates systematic excavation; reconstructions are labelled by date. | Greece and Rome | Reference | Public domain | 1,432 |
| William Smith, ed. | 1870 | Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, vol. I, Abacaenum to HytanisBoston: Little, Brown, and CompanyGazetteer articles, site descriptions, plans and ancient-text references. | Greece and Rome | Reference | Public domain | 1,136 |
| Charles Piazzi Smyth | 1874 | Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid, new and enlarged ednLondon: W. Isbister & Co.Pyramidology: the pyramid inch and sacred cubit. Cited as Piazzi Smyth's claim, with the proponent named, never as a measured value. | Egypt | Interpretive | Public domain | 578 |
| Charles Piazzi Smyth | 1884 | New Measures of the Great Pyramid, by a New MeasurerLondonSmyth's own measuring campaign. The measurements are real and the interpretation is not; pages that use it separate the two. | Egypt | Interpretive | Public domain | 136 |
| Amelia Carolina Sparavigna | 2012 | A Roman Dodecahedron for Measuring DistancearXiv:1204.6497Attributed modern rangefinding hypothesis, similar-triangle construction, pp. 2-4. Its 50 mm face separation is assumed, not measured. Jublains apertures reproduced here are not substituted for the original archaeological report. No Roman function or calibration established. | Roman artefacts | Interpretive | In copyright | 5 |
| Hermann Stiller; contribution by Otto Raschdorff | 1895 | Das Traianeum: TafelnBerlin: W. Spemann, Altertümer von Pergamon V.2 · Source recordExcavation architecture and plates of the Traianeum. Distinguish measured remains from reconstructed order and do not infer a local ancient foot from numerical fit alone. | Greece and Rome | SurveyGerman | Public domain | 42 |
| Hermann Stiller; contribution by Otto Raschdorff | 1895 | Das Traianeum: TextBerlin: W. Spemann, Altertümer von Pergamon V.2 · Source recordExcavation architecture and plates of the Traianeum. Distinguish measured remains from reconstructed order and do not infer a local ancient foot from numerical fit alone. | Greece and Rome | SurveyGerman | Public domain | 78 |
| Vacharee Svamivastu and Komsan Maleesee | 2025 | The Geometrical Relationship Between Ancient Hindu Technical Treatises and the Planning and Organization of Angkor WatBuildings 15, 1210 · DOIAngkor Wat's 2.75 m module and the 0.43545 m Mannikka reconstruction, pp. 4, 18 and 22. An interpretive model, not an inscriptionally fixed Khmer standard. | Asia | Analysis | CC BY 4.0 | 28 |
| George Ledwell Taylor and Edward Cresy | 1821 | The Architectural Antiquities of Rome, measured and delineated, vol. ILondon: printed by James Moyes · Source recordHistorical measured drawings of Roman monuments. Read the stated scale and English-unit convention on each plate; distinguish observations from restoration. | Greece and Rome | Survey | Public domain | 342 |
| George Ledwell Taylor and Edward Cresy | 1822 | The Architectural Antiquities of Rome, measured and delineated, vol. IILondon: printed by James Moyes · Source recordHistorical measured drawings of Roman monuments. Read the stated scale and English-unit convention on each plate; distinguish observations from restoration. | Greece and Rome | Survey | Public domain | 344 |
| Alexander Thom, Archibald S. Thom and T. R. Foord | 1976 | Avebury (1): A New Assessment of the Geometry and Metrology of the RingJournal for the History of Astronomy 7, pp. 183–192Survey coordinates and proposed geometrical/metrological reconstruction. Separate measurements from the claimed megalithic unit and compare Freeman’s critique. | Britain and modern | Analysis | In copyright | 10 |
| Alexander Thom, Archibald Stevenson Thom and Alexander Strang Thom | 1974 | StonehengeJournal for the History of Astronomy 5, pp. 71–90Survey-based geometrical interpretation of Stonehenge. Attribute the fitted geometry and megalithic unit; retain errors and phase distinctions. | Britain and modern | Analysis | In copyright | 20 |
| A. Thom and A. S. Thom | 1973 | A Megalithic Lunar Observatory in Orkney: The Ring of Brogar and its CairnsJournal for the History of Astronomy 4, pp. 111–123Survey and proposed lunar/geometry interpretation. Keep observed stone positions, reconstruction and astronomical hypothesis distinct. | Britain and modern | Analysis | In copyright | 13 |
| Alexei Vranich | 2018 | Reconstructing Ancient Architecture at Tiwanaku, Bolivia: The Potential and Promise of 3D PrintingHeritage Science 6, article 65 · Source recordReconstruction from measured architectural fragments and historic notes. Separate recorded block dimensions from hypothetical arrangements. | Americas | Analysis | CC BY 4.0 | 20 |
| Sir Charles Moore Watson | 1910 | British Weights and Measures as Described in the Laws of England from Anglo-Saxon TimesLondon: John Murray · Internet ArchiveMoney pounds, troy relationships, medieval pennies, grain definitions and the distinction among contemporary pounds. | Britain and modern | Reference | Public domain | 136 |
| Wu Chengluo 吳承洛 | 1937 | 中國度量衡史 Zhongguo duliangheng shi [A history of Chinese weights and measures]Shanghai: Commercial PressThe standard history of Chinese weights and measures and the route to the chi series by dynasty (Table 15, p. 91). Cited in translation with the original alongside. | Asia | AnalysisChinese | Public domain | 443 |
| Arthur C. Wurtele | 1882 | Standard Measures of the United States, Great Britain, and France: History and Actual ComparisonsNew York and London: E. & F. N. SponHistory and physical comparison of national standards during the metric transition. | Britain and modern | Reference | Public domain | 36 |
| Ronald Edward Zupko | 1985 | A Dictionary of Weights and Measures for the British Isles: The Middle Ages to the Twentieth CenturyPhiladelphia: American Philosophical Society (Memoirs)Regional and chronological disambiguation of British units whose names changed by market, commodity or locality. | Britain and modern | Reference | In copyright | 556 |
| Family | Primary | Secondary |
|---|---|---|
| Egyptian length, mass and capacity | Petrie 1926 | Arbuthnot 1754 |
| Great Pyramid fabric and original envelope | Petrie 1883 | Greaves 1737; Baedeker 1914 |
| Egyptian monuments beyond the Great Pyramid | Baedeker 1914; Jones 2006 (Red Pyramid); Dickinson 2014 (Djoser) | Greaves 1737; Smyth 1884 |
| Greek and Roman units | Arbuthnot 1705; Arbuthnot 1754 | Wurtele 1882 |
| Comparative ancient standards | Boeckh 1838 | Arbuthnot 1754 |
| The Roman foot from monuments | Greaves 1737 | Boeckh 1838; Bosak 2010 |
| Greek architectural survey and the Attic foot | Penrose 1888 | Boeckh 1838; Pennethorne 1878 |
| Greek and Roman sites and topography | Smith 1849; Smith 1857/1870 | Pennethorne 1878 |
| Mesopotamian units | Kramer 1963; Kasprik and Barros 2020 | — |
| Mauryan and Indian units | Shamasastry 1915 | Rutter 1866 |
| Chinese length and mass | Wu 1937 | Rutter 1866 |
| Angkor Wat enclosure-module model | Svamivastu and Maleesee 2025 | UNESCO Angkor record |
| Maya Long Count | Morley 1915 | — |
| British and English historical units | Zupko 1985; Watson 1910 | Felker 1878 |
| Metrication and US customary origins | Wurtele 1882; Rutter 1866; Bosak 2010 | — |
| General dictionaries (cross-reference) | Alexander 1850; Nicholson 1912; Chaney 1897 | — |
| The pyramidological tradition, for attribution | Smyth 1874; Smyth 1884; Edgar 1910 | — |
| Roman monuments and historical measured drawings | Desgodetz 1682; Taylor and Cresy 1821–1822 | Clérisseau 1778 (Nîmes); Stiller 1895 (Traianeum) |
| Bayon, Angkor Thom and Bantây Srêi | Cunin 2004; Gaucher 2004 | Finot, Parmentier and Goloubew 1926 |
| Megalithic survey, proposed units and statistical critique | Thom and colleagues 1973, 1974, 1976 | Porteous 1973; Freeman 1977 |
| Achaemenid administration and Persepolis | Knapton 2019 | Schmidt 1953, 1957, 1970 |
| Prambanan and Borobudur | Jordaan, ed., 1996 | Situngkir 2015 (computational hypothesis) |
| Andean and Mesoamerican reconstruction studies | Kubicka 2017; Lucet and Alvarado-León 2025 | Vranich 2018 |
Converter evidence
Five converters remain dimensionally separate. Every record keeps its period, region, basis, confidence and uncertainty.
- Length42base: metre
- Weight42base: gram
- Time26base: second
- Liquid58base: litre
- Area21base: square metre
Converter source register
This table is generated from the matrices. Counts show direct record use; they do not imply that one source proves every use of a named measure.
| Ancient Mesopotamian units overview | Time 4 | 4 | Mesopotamian geš, Mesopotamian watch, Mesopotamian schematic month and more |
|---|---|---|---|
| Archaeological Survey of India observatory guide | Time 4 | 4 | Indian vipala, Indian vinadi or pala, Indian ghati and more |
| Archive for History of Exact Sciences 2025 | Length 1 | 1 | Attic stadion |
| Australian National Measurement Institute | Liquid 3 | 3 | Australian spirit measure (15 mL), Australian spirit nip (30 mL), Australian spirit measure (60 mL) |
| BIPM historical overview | Length 1 | 1 | Egyptian khet |
| BIPM SI Brochure | Length 3Weight 5Time 5Liquid 3 | 16 | metre, centimetre, millimetre and more |
| British Museum EA23078 | Length 2 | 2 | Egyptian royal cubit (New Kingdom rod), Egyptian palm |
| British Museum Mesopotamian weight | Weight 4 | 4 | Mesopotamian grain, Mesopotamian shekel, Mesopotamian mina and more |
| British Weights and Measures in the Laws of England | Weight 1 | 1 | Tower pound (medieval English representative) |
| Buildings 2025 Angkor Wat geometric planning review | Length 1 | 1 | Khmer hat (Angkor Wat reconstruction) |
| Cambridge Early China metrology study | Weight 2 | 2 | Qin-Han liang, Qin-Han jin |
| Digital Egypt and metrological literature | Length 1 | 1 | Egyptian short cubit |
| Encyclopaedia Iranica, weights and measures | Weight 3 | 3 | Achaemenid shekel standard, Achaemenid karsha, Achaemenid-Babylonian talent |
| GOV.UK specified alcohol quantities | Liquid 10 | 10 | UK still-wine glass (125 mL), UK still-wine glass (175 mL), UK spirit measure (25 mL) and more |
| Indian National Science Academy, weighing devices | Weight 4 | 4 | Mauryan ratti, Mauryan masha, Mauryan purana or dharana and more |
| Journal of Roman Archaeology | Liquid 1 | 1 | Roman sextarius |
| Nature 144 360 | Length 1 | 1 | Olympic stadion |
| NIST Handbook 44 Appendix C | Length 4 | 4 | inch, international foot, yard and more |
| NIST Handbook 44 Appendix C | Liquid 2Area 5 | 7 | US liquid gallon, US liquid pint, square metre and more |
| NIST SI units: mass | Weight 7 | 7 | avoirdupois grain, troy grain, pennyweight and more |
| Petrie The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh | Length 2 | 2 | Egyptian royal cubit (Giza), Egyptian digit |
| Queensland Health alcohol guide | Liquid 5 | 5 | Australian standard wine glass (100 mL), Australian restaurant wine glass (150 mL), Australian pot or middy (285 mL) and more |
| Smith Dictionary Hora | Time 2 | 2 | Greek equinoctial hour, Roman equinoctial hour |
| Smith Dictionary Hora and calendar reference | Time 1 | 1 | Roman nundinal cycle |
| Smith Dictionary Mensura | Length 9Liquid 10Area 6 | 25 | Roman pes, Roman cubitus, Roman passus and more |
| Smith Dictionary Pes | Length 3 | 3 | Roman digit, Roman uncia, Roman palmus |
| Smith Dictionary Pondera | Weight 11 | 11 | Attic obol, Attic drachma (mass), Attic mina and more |
| Smithsonian Living Maya Time | Time 5 | 5 | Maya k'in, Maya uinal, Maya tun and more |
| Stone 2014 Cubit history | Length 3 | 3 | Nippur cubit, Mesopotamian digit, Mesopotamian nindan |
| Thom 1977 The Megalithic Yard | Length 1 | 1 | Megalithic yard (Thom hypothesis) |
| UCL Digital Egypt area measures | Area 3 | 3 | Egyptian land-unit (ta), Egyptian thousand (kha), Egyptian setjat (aroura) |
| UCL Digital Egypt volume measures | Liquid 2 | 2 | Egyptian hin, Egyptian heqat |
| UCL Digital Egypt, area | Area 7 | 7 | Egyptian sa (Old Kingdom), Egyptian heseb (Old Kingdom), Egyptian remen area (Old Kingdom) and more |
| UCL Digital Egypt, calendar | Time 5 | 5 | Egyptian civil day, Egyptian ten-day period, Egyptian civil month and more |
| UCL Digital Egypt, length | Length 10 | 10 | Egyptian hand, Egyptian fist, Egyptian double handbreadth and more |
| UCL Digital Egypt, volume | Liquid 7 | 7 | Egyptian ro, Egyptian dja, Egyptian double heqat and more |
| UCL Digital Egypt, weight | Weight 5 | 5 | Egyptian deben (Old and Middle Kingdom), Egyptian shematy (Old and Middle Kingdom), Egyptian qedet (New Kingdom) and more |
| UK Weights and Measures Act 1985 | Liquid 2 | 2 | imperial gallon, imperial pint |
| US Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau | Liquid 1 | 1 | US beer barrel (31 US gallons) |
| US Government historical British cask table | Liquid 5 | 5 | British beer pin (4.5 imperial gallons), British beer firkin (9 imperial gallons), British beer kilderkin (18 imperial gallons) and more |
| US Government historical measure table | Liquid 7 | 7 | English wine rundlet (18 wine gallons), English wine barrel (31.5 wine gallons), English wine tierce (42 wine gallons) and more |
Treasure and coin sources
Treasure combines the Weight matrix with a small, explicit set of composition conventions and dated coin or mass models. Each preset names its basis; unknown fineness remains unknown.
| Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Pondera | Attic and Aeginetan weight-system models; mass, not monetary value. |
|---|---|
| British Museum, Money Gallery: Athenian owls | Athenian tetradrachm context and specimen evidence. |
| Encyclopaedia Iranica, Weights and Measures | Achaemenid weight standards used for the daric mass model. |
| Indian National Science Academy, weighing devices | Mauryan ratti and purana relationships. |
| Watson, British Weights and Measures | Troy mass and historical English coin-weight context. |
| British Museum B.7223 | A measured Roman aureus specimen. |
| Local research library | Petrie and Arbuthnot volumes used for artefact-led weight evidence and historical fineness conventions. |
Geometry, artefact, and site sources
Museum catalogues, heritage records and academic surveys that support the temple studies, geometry calculators and artefact pages. Each note states the category of claim the source is used for.
| British Museum, Rhind Mathematical Papyrus problem 56 explainer | Pyramid mathematics and seked. |
|---|---|
| British Museum, Romano-British dodecahedron 1924,0411.1 | Object dimensions and aperture range. |
| English Heritage, Roman dodecahedra | Archaeological status and unresolved function. |
| Wolfram MathWorld, Regular Dodecahedron | Ideal-solid formula verification. |
| UNESCO, Memphis and its Necropolis | Giza heritage context. |
| UNESCO, Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis | Karnak heritage context. |
| UNESCO, Acropolis of Athens | Parthenon heritage context. |
| Oxford Academic, Parthenon dimensions | Parthenon stylobate dimensions. |
| Digital Karnak, Hypostyle Hall | Karnak hall plan, column count, and central height. |
| British Institute for the Study of Iraq, Ur guide | Ziggurat lower-platform dimensions and cubit model. |
| Perseus Art and Archaeology, Temple of Aphaia | Aphaia stylobate and column plan. |
| Smarthistory, The Pergamon Altar | Great Altar footprint. |
| UNESCO, Archaeological Site of Olympia | Olympia heritage context. |
| Greek Ministry of Culture, Temple of Aphaia | Aphaia temple context. |
| UNESCO, Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape | Pergamon architecture, terrain, and engineering. |
| Italian Ministry of Culture, Pantheon | Pantheon interior diameter and equal height. |
| Penn Museum, The Ziggurat of Ur | Ur excavation dimensions and reconstruction. |
| English Heritage, Understanding Stonehenge | Stonehenge solstitial geometry and evidence limits. |
| UNESCO, Angkor | Angkor Wat heritage, landscape, and symbolic context. |
| Buildings 2025, Angkor Wat geometric planning review | Khmer hat reconstruction and its limitations. |
| Alexander Thom, The Megalithic Yard | Original statistical unit hypothesis. |
| Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Bayesian Analysis of the Megalithic Yard | Statistical critique and regional concentration. |
| Mathematical Association of America, Eratosthenes and the Mystery of the Stades | Alexandria to Syene baseline and stadion problem. |
| Oxford Academic, Eratosthenes and the Measurement of the Earth’s Circumference | Historical framing of Eratosthenes’ method. |
| Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, The Red Pyramid | Official monument record: naming, exposed core, former casing and chamber sequence. No envelope dimensions. |
| Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Dahshur | Official site record: Dahshur within the Memphite necropolis and the Bent and Red pyramids. |
| UCL Digital Egypt, Meydum | Representative final-envelope reconstruction (base 144 m, height 92 m); no formal survey tolerance. |
| Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, The Pyramid of Meidum | Official monument record: Sneferu, present appearance and the gradual-destruction interpretation. |
Coverage audit and research boundary
The audit began with the Ancient Egyptian overview and its linked Mesopotamian, Hebrew, Persian, Greek, and Roman measurement pages, then checked museum, academic, government, and specialist references. Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, Persia, early imperial China, ancient India, and the Classic Maya now have representation where a defensible fixed magnitude was available.
| Research area | Sources now held and remaining limits |
|---|---|
| Khmer architecture and measures | Cunin’s two volumes, Gaucher’s Angkor Thom study and Finot, Parmentier and Goloubew’s Bantây Srêi monograph are now held. Their plans and architectural histories expand the evidence; a proposed module still needs a dated, site-specific basis. |
| The megalithic yard | Thom and colleagues’ studies of Stonehenge, Avebury and Brogar are now held alongside critiques by Porteous and Freeman. Survey coordinates, fitted geometry and the proposed yard are distinct claims. These papers do not supply equivalent coverage for Callanish. |
| Roman architectural surveys | Desgodetz, Taylor and Cresy, Clérisseau and Stiller are now held. They provide historical measured drawings for Rome, Nîmes and the Traianeum. Original survey units, restoration and later changes must be distinguished. |
| Achaemenid weights and length | Knapton’s study of official measures and Schmidt’s three Persepolis volumes are now held. Attested terminology, object measurements and proposed regional standards must be assessed separately; a single empire-wide conversion is not assumed. |
| Mesoamerican, Javanese and Andean measures | New studies cover Xochicalco, Prambanan, Borobudur, Machu Picchu and Tiwanaku. Their proposed modules and reconstructions are site-specific; they do not establish universal regional units or resolve Teotihuacan and Sacsayhuamán. |
How sources are used
A linked source supports the category of claim named in its note. Defined modern values, reconstructed ancient standards, named serving capacities, historical cask schedules, artefact records, and interpretive claims are different evidence classes. The site does not promote one class into another.
Where a source gives a relationship rather than a direct modern magnitude, the matrix records that relationship as its basis. A historical vessel name is not assumed to equal every surviving object bearing that name, and a published serving volume is not treated as a measure of alcohol content.
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